What are spurious correlations?

Spurious correlations refer to misleading data relationships that do not reflect a true or causal connection between the two variables being studied. In other words, while two variables may appear to be related statistically, this relationship is often the result of confounding factors or coincidence, instead of a direct cause-and-effect relationship.

For example, data might show a correlation between ice cream sales and drowning incidents, but this does not mean that buying ice cream causes drowning. Instead, both may be influenced by a third variable, such as warm weather. Recognizing and understanding spurious correlations is vital in cognitive psychology and research more broadly, as it helps researchers avoid incorrect conclusions based on misleading data.

The other options do not accurately reflect the nature of spurious correlations. Some suggest genuine or reliable associations which misrepresent the concept entirely.